在这一章，我们将给很多简短的文章，每一段文章的后面，我们都会有详细的解释，相信这些解释将有助于读者对于文法的了解。

（１）
Dear Mother:
I arrived at the Taipei Train Station around one o'clock in the afternoon yesterday. My friend, Mr. Chen, greeted me in the station. We took a taxi to go directly to the university and checked into the dormitory. The dormitory is a very old one. I will live with three other boys and I met two of them already. Both of them are from Taichung and they are both quite friendly.
We went to the dormitory cafeteria for dinner. The food is not that good. Dear Mother, I miss you and especially the food you cooked for me.
Your son
这封信很简单，所叙述的事情不是用简单的现在式，就是简单的过去式，当然也有一次用了将来时。
绝大多数的句子都用了简单的过去式，因为这些句子都是叙述过去所发生的事，用现在式的有以下几句：
The dormitory is a very old one.
Both of them are from Taichung.
The food is not that good.
I miss you and the food you cooked for me.
为什么这几句话要用现在式呢？道理很简单，这几句话描写的是一些状态，而并非过去发生的事。
〝The dormitory is a very old one.〞
〝Both of them are from Taichung.〞
〝The food is not that good.〞
〝I miss you and the food you cooked for me.〞
等四个句子都是目前存在的事实，所以要用现在式。
现在我们不妨看一下冠词的情形，我们可以看到很多地方都用了the，如：
the Taipei Train Station
the afternoon
the station
the university
the dormitory cafetervia
the dormitory
the food
the food you cooked for me
各位读者一定可以注意到在the后面的名词都有所指，举例来说，the university指那所作者要去念的大学，他的妈妈知道他所说的是那一所大学。The dormitory指那间他已搬进去住的宿舍。凡是有所指的名词前面，原则上都应该加the。
哪里用了〝a〞呢？注意，我们用了两次
a taxi
a very old one
读者应该不难看出为什么这里我们不能用the，而一定要用a。

（２）
Mary: "Hello, this is Mary. Who is calling?"
John: "Hi, this is John. How are you?"
Mary: "I am doing fine. In fact, I am studying for the final examination now."
John: "Oh, I am sorry. When will the exam be over?"
Mary: "This Friday."
John: "Then, can we have dinner Friday evening?"
Mary: "OK, where are we going to eat?"
John: "How about the Chinese restaurant called Four Seasons?"
Mary: "That is all right with me. When do we meet?"
John: "How about six o'clock?"
Mary: "That's it. See you Friday evening at 6 o'clock at the Four Seasons."
这一篇短文主要的目的在于介绍所谓现在进行式。
Who is calling.
I am doing fine.
I am studying for the final examination now.
都是标准的现在进行式，事实上，也必须用现在进行式。

（３）
I have been interested in music ever since I was a small child. When I was seven years old, my mother gave me a violin as a birthday present. I have been taking violin lessons ever since.
I am so much interested in music that I finally decided to go to music school. This was a hard decision for me. I consulted with my parents. Both of them encouraged me to go ahead.
Yesterday, I was accepted by one of the best music schools in Taiwan. I am really happy about this.
这一段话中，我们开始用现在完成式，比方说第一句话就是
I have been interested in music ever since I was a small child.
为什么要用现在完成式呢？道理很简单，这句话里面有有〝ever since〞这个词，凡是有了这个词句，我们就一定要用现在完成式了。
另外一句用了现在完成进行式的句子是：
I have been taking violin lessons ever since.
读者不妨去看看第四章，就知道为什么这里要用现在完成进行式了。凡是〝自从〞某某日开始，而就一直在做的事情，就应该用现在完成式，或者现在完成进行式。
这一段文章里面，我们还用了被动语气。
I was accepted by one of the best music schools in Taiwan.
各位读者不妨注意，这被动语气的用法是很正当而且适宜的，如用主动这句话变成了
One of the best music schools accepted me.
这样反而并不太能表达原意。

（４）
Before I got into college, I had been to the United States and lived there for one year. This is why I could speak English better than average students.
As I studied as a college student, Hitler was secretly preparing for the Second World War. The war erupted finally when I was a senior. I was forced to quit school and was drafted into the army. I luckily survived the war and came back to resume my studying after the war was over. Since I had gone to the war, I was more mature than most of the other students.
Even now, I can still remember my days as a college student as well as a soldier.
这篇文章介绍了如何使用过去完成式，第一句话就用了过去完成式，因为有两件事，一件是〝进大学〞，另一件是〝去过美国〞，由于在进大学以前去美国，所以〝去美国〞就用了过去完成式。
请注意第二段的第一句：
As I studied as a college student, Hitler was secretly preparing for the Second World War.
这一次，我们用了过去进行式，因为有两件事，〝在学校念书〞是一件事，〝希特勒在准备发动第二次世界大战〞是另一件事，其中有一件可以用过去完成式。
同理，在第二段话的最后一句话中，〝曾经去打过仗〞用了过去完成式。
这段文章中，有一句话用了被动语气，读者不妨看这句话〝I was forced to quit school.〞，其实我们在这种情形之下，我们必须用被动语气，当然也可以用主动语气，不过那并不太自然。
也请读者注意这段文章的最后一句话仍一定要用现在式。

（５）
I have been interested in reading novels for a long time. Among all of the novels that I have read, I like detective novels the most. Among all detective novels, I especially like those written by Agatha Christe.
Last year, I started reading another kind of novels, namely science fictions. I found out that some science fiction writers are quite philosophical. Unfortunately, there are not too many of them.
I always have a dream that one day I will be good in writing novels. Do you think that my dreams may come true?
这段文章中，我们介绍了动名词的用法，第一句话的reading就是动名词，除此以外，我们还有两处用了动名词：started reading和good in writing。
读者也应该了解为什么第一句话要用现在完成进行式，在第二句话里面，当我们形容novels，我们也用了现在完成式。
请读者注意第一段的最后一句话，those written by Agatha Christe。在这里，written是一个过去分词用作了形容词，形容novels，我们也可以说those which were written by Agatha Christe.
顺便讲一下，Agatha Christe是一位非常著名的侦探小说作者。
也请大家注意，我们只能说interested in reading，而不能说interesting in reading。

（６）
Tomorrow, there will be a dancing party in our university. Since we are freshmen and most of us have never been to a large dancing party, we are naturally very much excited. I must say that I am not that excited. Although dancing is interesting, I often think that the music is too loud. Besides, as a bystander, I often find the way that the young people dance these days is so funny. When they dance, they often remind me of monkeys.
Well, I must admit that playing basketball is more interesting to me. But, unfortunately, I cannot play basketball tomorrow because the courts will be used for the dancing party.
这一段话主要的目的是介绍现分词和过去分词用成形容词的做法。第一个现在分词是dancing，dancing 在这里形容party。
我们在这里看到有些时候，我们应该用现在分词，有时要用过去分词。请看以下的句子：
We are naturally very much excited.
在这里，我们一定要用excited，绝对不能用
＊We are naturally very exciting.
下一句
Although dancing is interesting,
在这里，我们必须用interesting，而不能用interested。也就是说，我们不能说
＊Although dancing is interested.

（７）
We probably all believe that we should love others and forgive those who do bad things to us. Unfortunately it is often hard for us to practice what we believe in. For example, if someone really hurts us badly, we just do not know what we should do. Should we take some kind of action to hurt the person who hurt us, or should we forgive him?
The truth is that we may still seek justice. It is right if we want a criminal to go to jail for his crime. Yet, we should never have hatred in our hearts.
这篇文章的目的在介绍〝子句〞的用法，请注意这篇文章内的很多子句，举例来说
that we should love others and forgive those who do bad things.
就是一个子句，这个子句是believe的受词，有趣的是，这个子句内部又有一个子句，那就是
who do bad things to do.
这个子句是形容those的。
以下是这一段文章的全部子句：
that we should love others and forgive those
who do bad things to us
what we believe in
what we should do
that we may still seek justice

--------xushen ------补充-----------------------------------------------

It's useful for me. Thanks a million.  

The following is my notes. That is saying, I should learn the following key points.


4-1 现在完成式（Present Perfect Tense）
完成式的形式是 verb to have + past participle，每一个动词，都有过去式和过去分词，以下就是一些例子：


什么情况之下要用现在完成式呢？
1. 首先假设我们有一件事，发生在过去，而一直延续到现在，就要用现在完成式，这种句子后面常有since或for。以下是这种情形的

（1）自从1963年，我一直在念英文。
I have studied English since 1963.


2.使用现在完成式的另一情况是强调已经完成的事，比方说，你说〝我已经写了那封信〞，就可以用现在完成式，或者，你说〝他已经完成了

工作〞。以下是这类的例子：
（1）我已经写了这封信。
I have already written the letter.

3.现在完成式用来表示一种经验，举例来说，〝我曾经到过美国〞、〝我曾见过李总统〞，这些都应该用现在完成式，例如：
（1） 我曾经到过美国。
I have been to America.

4.现在完成式可以用来表示一件过去常发生的事：
（1） 今年我国已有二次台风。 We have already had two typhoons so far this year.
（2） 他今年已发表了三篇论文。He has already published three papers this year.


对读者而言，最重要的是〝现在完成式〞和〝过去式〞煌烤乖谀抢铮孔钪匾牟煌谟冢坏┰诰渥又薪惨患シ⑸氖拢抑付ㄌ?
定的时间，就一定要用〝过去式〞，而不能用〝现在完成式〞。比方说，〝我曾经看过「铁达尼号」〞，可以用现在完成式，因为这句话没有

指明任何特定的时间，假如说，〝我昨天晚上去看「铁达尼号」〞，就一定用过去式，读者不妨看看以下的比较：
（a）I went to America last year.
I have been to America.
（b）I saw The Titanic last year.
I have seen The Titanic twice.


现在完成式常和since、for、already、never、ever等字一起使用，以下都是这类的例子：
（1）I have already had dinner.
（2）Since this summer began, we have already had two storms.
（3）It has not rained for a long time.
（4）I have never talked to this man before.
（5）I have never met your father.
（6）Have you ever been to America?
（7）He has already won three awards.
（8）I have stayed here since June.
Never 和 ever 也常是我们弄不清楚如何使用的字，一般说来， never 有否定的意思，ever则只有在问句中才会出现。


4-2 现在完成进行式（Present Perfect Progressive Tense）
如果有一个行动，从过去发生后，就一直延续到现在，可以用现在完成式。举例来说，以下的例子都应该用现在完成式：
（1） 自从1974年，我就在学校学英文。Since 1974, I have studied English at school.
（2） 自从我大学毕业以后，我就在这里工作。Since I graduated from college, I have worked here.

以第一句话为例，假如我们要强调我一直在练习游泳，而且没有间断，我们可以用现在完成进行式。
所谓现在完成进行式，形式如下：
verb to have + been + present participle
verb to have 是为了完成式，been 和 present participle 都是为了进行式。

以下是现在完成进行式的例子：
I have been studying English since 1974.
I have been working here since I graduated from college.


4-3 过去完成进行式（Past Perfect Progressive Tense）
过去完成式的形式如下：had + past participle
过去完成式是不能单独用的。用的时候，必须有另一个事件。也就是说，假如有两件事 A 和 B，两件事都发生在过去，但 A 发生在 B 以前，

A 应该用过去完成式，B 则用过去式。

以下是几个例子：
（1） 他到台湾以前，曾学过中文。
He had studied Chinese before he came to Taiwan.
（2） 他念大学以前，曾前工作过。
He had worked before he decided to go to college.
如果我们要强调较早发生事件的连续性，我们可以用过去完成进行式。过去完成进行式和现在进行式惟一不同的地方是 verb to have 的地方

一定要用had 。

以下是一些过去完成进行式的例子：
1. I had been watching TV before you called me.
2. I had been working hard in a company for many years before I went to college.


第五章 将来时

5-1 将来时的基本规则

如果我们在句子中，有需要提到将来的事情，就可以使用将来时，举例来说，以下的句子都用将来时。
I will go to America tomorrow.
He will dance tonight.
Peter will finish his work next month.
如果不用〝will〞，我们可以用〝verb to be +going to+ verb〞，如果我们如此做，以上的三个句子就变成了以下的句子
I am going to go to America tomorrow.
He is going to dance tonight.

将来时常和别的句子用在一起，以下是典型的例子
1. When you come tomorrow, I will already be in Taipei.
2. After I graduate, I am going to be a good doctor in Africa.


5-2 将来时的变形

将来时可以和进行式合起来用，以下是将来进行式的例子
I will be watching TV tomorrow at eight.
He will be eating a big dinner after he gets out of the hospital.
I will be studying mathematics at home when you come.
Two days later, I will be driving a new car.

将来时可以和完成式合在一起用，而成为将来完成式，这种句子都是在于强调将来要完成的事。举例来说，”我明天六点以前，我会完成这工

作了”，就可以用将来完成式：
I will have finished this work by six o’clock tomorrow.


第六章　否定句子(Negative Sentences)

在英文中，我们可以用have to来代替must，以下是have to的例子：
He has to go to Chicago tomorrow.（他明天应该去芝加哥）
They had to buy three tickets to go to the concert.（他们必须买三张票去听音乐会）
I have to work very hard.（我必须努力工作）

含有have to的句子，如要改成否定句子，必须在have to前面加do或它的变形，请看以下的例子：
肯定句子：He has to eat a lot of food.
否定句子：He does not have to eat a lot of food.


6-2 No, Never和Any的用法

要达成否定的意思,有时我们也可以用no和never这些字，no必须跟一个名词，请看下面的例子：
1.I saw no students here.
2.There are no lakes in this country.
3.I have no money.
4.I had no choice.
5.He has no friends.

以上这些例子也可以用not来表示否定的意思，如果用not，则以上的句子应该照下面的方式写；
1.I did not see any student here.
2.We can not find any lake in this country.
3.I do not have any money.
4.I did not have any choice.
5.He does not have any friends.

除以上not之外，never也可以表达否定的意思，以下都是never的例子，请注意never常用在完成式的句子里：
I have never gone there.
He has never written any song.
They have never washed their clothes.


我们的问句中，当然也可已有否定的意义，比方说，我们可以问：
你不喜欢音乐吗？
他不是你的弟弟吗？
你从未见过他？
英文句子也可以如此，例如：
Don’t you like music?
Doesn’t he play piano?
Aren’t you his brother?
Isn’t he a good student?
Didn’t he go to school?
Hasn’t he lived here?
Won’t he leave tomorrow?

注意，这时not通常和动词连在一起了。
有一件事，是我们中国人必须注意的，假如有人问你：
你不喜欢音乐吗？
而你本人的确也不喜欢音乐，你会回答说：是，我不喜欢音乐。
也就是说，我们中国人的回答是顺着问句的。问句说你不喜欢，我们同意他的说法，所以前面加一个〝是〞。假设我喜欢音乐，我会回答说：
不，我喜欢音乐。

可是，英文正好相反，英文的yes和no，与问句的问法无关，而对应了回答的事实。举例来说，我们的问句也许是：
Don’t you like music?
你如不喜欢音乐就回答说： No, I don’t like music.
你如喜欢音乐，就回答说： Yes, I like music.
再举一例，有人问：
Isn’t he Chinese?
他是中国人就回答：Yes, he is.
他如不是，就回答：No, he isn’t.
反正，英文的yes和no，都和答案的事实对应，而与如何问无关。


8-3 有助动词肯定句子的被动语气

助动词不一定和时式有关，can、should、has to等等都是助动词，这些助动词在改成被动语气的时后，都应维持原状，只需加入verb to be和

过去分词即可。以下是一些例子：
主动语气 被动语气
I can play the piano. The piano can be played by me.
I may use this room. This room may be used by me.
He must give the book to me. The book must be given to me by him.
You should help him. He should be helped by you.
You have to write this letter. This letter has to be written by you.
He ought to write this report. This report ought to be written by him.


8-4 否定句子的被动语气

将一个否定句子或一个问句改成被动语气，其步骤如下：
（1） 将此句子改成肯定句子
（2） 将此肯定句子改成被动语气
（3） 将此被动语气的句子改成否定句子
现在举一个否定的例子：
I did not take this picture.
对应的肯定句子是：
I took this picture.
改成被动语气：
This picture was taken by me.
再改成否定句子：
This picture was not taken by me.


在下面，我们将省略中间步骤，直接写出一个否定句子的被动语气，英文好的人应该是不需要中间步骤的：
主动语气 被动语气
They do not enjoy such music. Such music is not enjoyed by them.
He did not tell that story. That story was not told by him.
They have not written that story. That story has not been told by them.


8-5 问句的被动语气

将问句改成被动语气，步骤类似上一节的步骤，我们先将问句变成肯定句子，然后将这个定句子变成被动语气，最后在将这个被动语气的句子

变回，成为问句。
例如：
Do young kids enjoy classical music?
先改成肯定句子
Young kids enjoy classical music.
再改成被动语气
Classical music is enjoyed by young kids.
最后改成问句
Is classical music enjoyed by young kids?

在下面，我们将省略中间步骤，直接写出一个问句的被动语气，英文好的人应该是不需要中间步骤的：
主动语气 被动语气
Does he help his students? Are his students helped by him?
Did he tell that story? Was that story told by him?
Has she written that story? Has that story been written by her?


第九章 动词如何转换成名词

动名词（Gerund）和不定词（Infinitive）

9-1 问题的来源

对我们说中文的人而言，一个字究竟是动词，还是名词，其实是很少人知道的，对一般人而言，〝唱歌〞是动词，但是如果我们说，〝唱歌是

有益的〞，我们又发现〝唱歌〞其实也是名词。〝我爱唱歌〞，这句话中，〝唱歌〞也是名词。
英文就不同了，英文里很少有一个字，又是动词，又是名词的，sing是动词，绝不能当很名词用。怪不得有很多中国人会说
＊Sing is good for you. 或者是 ＊I like sing.
既然sing是动词，也没有一个〝sing〞的名词，怎么办呢？英文解套的办法很有趣，他们用动名词（gerund）和不定词（infinitive）来将一

个动词改成一个名词。
9?2 动名词（Gerund）
所谓动名词，乃是将一个动词，字尾加上ing，一夜之间，这个动词就可以当作名词用了。请看以下的例子：
I like singing.
Playing basketball is good for you.
Do you enjoy listening to classical music?
Is traveling around the world meaningful to you?
Studying English is not difficult.
我们不妨将动名词的用法分一下类：
1.动名词可用作主词，如
Playing tennis is enjoyed by many people.
Taking drugs is avoided by most people.
Being kind to others is important for every one.
Respecting your parents shows good character.
2.动名词可以用作动词的受词，如
I enjoy studying English.
He does not mind walking long distances.
I have never enjoyed being alone in my life.
He loves swimming.
3.动名词可以用作介系词（preposition）的受词，英文里有很多介系词，at, in, about, of, on等等都是介系词，介系词后面必定跟一个名

词，也是它的受词，举例来说
on the table
in my home
about Hitler
of my life
on this island
各位一定注意到，每一个介系词后面都有一个名词，作为它的受词。
动名词是可以作为介系词的受词的，如：
This book is about traveling.
He is responsible for cleaning the kitchen.
My brother is capable of writing programs.
You just keep on going straight.


9?3 不定词（Infinitives）
不定词＝to＋动词的原式。例如to go, to love, to eat等等，都是不定词，不定词和动名词的用法相似，以下全是用不定词用作名词的例子

：
To love is to forgive.
To forgive your enemies will make you happy.
I like to eat chicken.
I asked my brother to come here.
He continued to read.
也许读者发现了不定词和动名词不同的地方：不定词不能用在介系词的后面。


如何将不定词用成名词呢？
1.不定词可以用作主词：如
To play tennis is great fun.
To play safe in the stock market is necessary.
To be kind to others is important for every one.
To respect your parents shows good character.
2.不家词可以用成很多动词的受词：
I like to swim.
He loves to listen to jokes.
My brother seems to be different.
I agree to lend him money.
Do you like to sing?
3.不定词可以跟在代名词的后面，形式如下：
动词（verb）＋代名词（pronoun）＋不定词（infinitive）
例如：
I told him to work hard.
I asked my brother to come back home.
He expects his friends to help him.
My teacher told me to wait for him.
I invited my sister to go to see a movie.
4.不定词常用在上述句子的被动语气中，例如：
He was told to work hard.
My brother was asked to come back home.
His friend is expected to help me.
I was told by my teacher to wait.
My sister was invited to go to see a movie.


是不是动名词可以和不定词互调，答案是否定的，有些动词后面可以跟动名词和不定词，但也有些动词，后面只能跟动名词，有些动词后面只能跟不定词。
有些动词后面可以跟动名词或不定词：love, like, hate, start, begin,

以下的动词，后面只能跟动名词：
Enjoy/ I enjoy eating good food.
Appreciate/ I appreciate your being kind to others.
Avoid/ You should avoid making mistakes.
keep on/ Keep on working hard.
keep/ Keep singing.
consider/ He considered leaving home.
finish/ He finished writing this book.
suggest/ May I suggest drinking a cup of coffee?
discuss/ We discussed traveling to New Zealand.

以下的动词只能跟不定词
agree/ I agree to sign this letter.
plan/ He plans to go away.
want/ They want to rent a car.
decide/ He decided to work hard.
seem/ He seems to be very happy.
appear/ He appears to be very sad.


一个字非常特殊，必须讨论一下，那就是stop：
stop smoking 指不再抽烟了
stop to smoke 指停下来，开始抽烟

9?4 动名词和不定词的被动和否定形式
将动词改成名词的时候，也可以有被动语气和否定语气，以下是一些例子：
Everyone likes to be loved.
This cup needs to be washed.
Being trusted is important.
I told him not to leave this house.
He asked me not to cry.


9?5 不定词的简式
不定词中一定要有to，但在有几个动词的后面，to又要省掉。以下的动词后面，不定词的后面都要省掉to。
动词 例句
let/ My mother let me watch TV tonight.
make/ He makes his students respect teachers.
have/ He had his sons clean their rooms.
see/ I saw him run away.
hear/ I heard the birds sing.
watch/ I watched the kids play.
notice/ I noticed her cry.
因为在这些动词的后面，本来应该用不定词，仅仅是to被省掉了，因此我们在这些动词的后面仍然要用原式。


Help这一个动词非常特别，它后面的不定词中的to可省略也可不省，以下的句子都是对的：
I helped him wash his car.
I helped him to wash his car.


第十章 如何将动词改成形容词
将一个动词用成一个形容词，做法是利用分词（participle）和不定词（infinitive），而分词有两种：现在分词（present participle）和过去分词（past participle），我们在下一节，先谈现在分词的用法。

10?1 现在分词（present participle）作为形容词
任何一个动词，都有一个现在分词（present participle），现在分词的形式是在动词后面加上ing，如：
laughing
crying
walking
swimming
running
以下的例子中，现在分词都是形容词
a crying baby
a smiling girl
an exciting story
running water
a running boy
a rising star
现在分词不一定放在名词的前面，在以下的句子中，现在分词都在名词的后面
a person walking in the woods
the young man running very fast
people living in Taiwan
the person driving that red car
the singer singing the national anthem（国歌）
the boys playing in the fields
the young boy swimming in the pool
以下句子中的现在分词，都被用作形容词。
We have a crying baby here.
Seeing is believing.（believing是形容词，seeing是名词）
Loving is forgiving.
He always wears a smiling face.
Running water is important for mankind.
Look at the rising sun.
The person swimming in that cold river is quite strong.
The young man driving the red car is rich.
Those boys playing basketball are happy.
This movie is exciting.
This news is very upsetting.
This story is troubling.
The young boy swimming in the pool is my brother.
People living in the United States consume more energy than other people.
The person painting the house there is from Mexico.
She has a loving husband.
He is a rising star.


10?2 过去分词（past participle）作为形容词
在完成式中，我们要用过去分词，过去分词也可以作为形容词，以下是一些例子：
a broken window （破碎的窗）
a fallen angel （堕落的天使）
a fallen star （已经不走红的明星）
a depressed person （一个沮丧的人）
a much appreciated action （为人很欣赏的动作）
究竟过去分词和现在分词何不同呢？过去分词多半有动被和已经完成的意思。最好的例子是：开发中家叫做a developing country，已开发国家就叫做a developed country。


以下的例子可以解释过去分词和现在分词的不同：
1. (a)这本书很有趣。
This book is interesting.
(b)我对这本书很有兴趣。
I am interested in this book.
2. (a)这是一部令人沮丧的电影。
This is a depressing movie.
(b)我看了这部电影以后，感到非常沮丧。
I felt very much depressed after seeing that movie.
3. (a)结果令人失望。
The result is frustrating.
(b)他因这个结果而非常失望。
He was frustrated because of the result.
4. (a)这个消息真令人难过。
This news is really upsetting.
(b)他们都很难过。
They are all upset.
5. (a)约翰的进步令人鼓舞。
John’s progress is encouraging.
(b)我因约翰的进步而感到鼓舞。
I am encouraged by John’s progress.
6. (a)水在烧。
The water is boiling.
(b)这是烧开的水。
This is boiled water.
7.(a)这个消息出人意外。
This news is surprising.
(b)我对这个消息感到意外。
I was surprised by the news.
8. (a)他的谈话令人困惑。
His words are confusing.
(b)他是一个充满困惑的人。
He is a confused person.


10?3 不定词（Infinitives）作为形容词和副词
不定词可以用作名词，也可以用作形容词，以下都是不定词用作形容词的例子，要注意的是不定词不会放在名词的前面：
You don't have the right to talk so loudly.
He is to blame.
To see is to believe.（To see是名词，to believe是形容词）
My job is to teach poor kids to learn.
We all have the duty to serve our country.
He has a talent to sing.
I don't have time to play.
He is a person to be liked by us all.
This is a book to be read by all students.
He has no money to spend.


11?2 以that开始的名词子句
我们必须加一个that到名词子句里去，以下的翻译是正确的：
That the earth is round is known to everyone.
我要求他一定要用功念书。
以下的翻译才是正确的：
I demand that he must work hard.
虽然我们常看到这种that被省略的情形，我们仍希望大家知道，为保险起见，最好不要省掉that。以下是一些例子：
That the sun rises from the west is wrong.（太阳从西方升起是错的）


第十二章 冠词（Articles）
假设我们要翻译以下的中文句子：他是聪明的孩子.
英文冠词只有两个：a和the，在这个例子，我们应该加a，因此正确的翻译是：
He is a clever boy.
我们现在再看以下的中文句子：他是昨天来看我的孩子。
这次我们必须加the，正确的翻译是：He is the boy who came to see me yesterday.
一般来说，英文句子的单数名词前面都会有冠词，没有冠词是例外，以下的句子都是错的：

我们知道大多数的名词前面要加冠词，但究竟要加a，还是the呢？我们在下一节讨论。


12-1 a和the之不同用法
a和the最大的不同，在于a后面的名词不是指定的，而the后面的名词是有所指的。我们不妨看以下的两个句子，他们都是正确的，但意义却不同。
John is a boy.
John is the boy.
〝John is a boy.〞的意思是〝约翰是一个男孩〞，而〝John is the boy.〞的意思就完不同了，我们一定曾经提到过某一个男孩子，而约翰就是那个男孩子。可能的情形是：There is a boy who is very good in mathematics. John is the boy.
我们就以〝国王〞为例，如果我们泛指一般的国王，我们可以用复数，也可以用单数，但必须用a，以下是一些例子：
Kings are also human beings.
Even a king will die sooner or later.
Have you ever met a king ?
I do not like to be a king.
He is an ordinary person, not a king.
如果我们的国王是指某一个特定的国王，就必须用the，举一个例子；如果我们说〝国王万岁〞，我们当然是指我们的国王，因此〝国王万岁〞的翻译就是
Long live the King.


根据这种原则，当我们提到地球，月亮这种独一无二的东西，就必须用the。
the earth
the sun
the moon
the universe
除此以外，the还有一个特殊的用途，我们可以在the的后面加一个形容词，使这两个字变成了一个名词，举例来说：
the rich＝富人
the poor＝穷人
the weak＝弱者
the deaf＝聋人
the blind＝盲人
请注意，以上的名词是复数：

12-3 冠词使用时的例外
在以上的两节，我们好像说冠词的使用是有一定规则的，其实不然，例外也不少。在很多情形之下，冠词是要省略的，更麻烦的是，连省略冠词的规则都有例外，应该省的却又不省了。
第一个有关冠词的特殊用法是这样的，假设我们要说〝男生通常不喜欢弹钢琴〞，我们不能说
Boy does not like to play the piano.
而要说
Boys do not like to play the piano.
这时，Boys的前面，是没有冠词的，理由很简单，我们不能加a，因为boys是复数，我们也不能加the，因为boys并没有指定哪一个男孩，也没有指定哪一种男孩。类似的例子有：

Girls are more diligent than boys.
When spring comes, flowers start to bloom.
Dogs are often close to their masters.
Cats are often quite lazy.
Men eat more than women.
Professors are all very smart.

第二个规则有关所谓不可数名词，很多名词是可以数的如：
a cup, two cups
a boy, three boys
a teacher
a student
a boat
an airplane
a glass of water
a cup of tea

可是很多名词是不可数的，以下这些名词都是抽象的，因此不可数
time
love
hatred
pain
joy
sadness
kindness
wisdom
hope
patience

这些抽象名词的前面是不要加冠词的，例子如下：
Time flies.（时间过得很快）
We can not live without love.
Let there be no hatred.
We must be able to endure pain.
Loving others creates joy.
There is sadness in his voice.
Can you feel his kindness?
He has wisdom.
There is hope among us.
I am losing patience.

以上的例子，乃是泛指的事物，如果特定的抽象名词，仍要加冠词。例如：
This is the time to cry.
Do you feel the pain?
There is a hatred towards was in our society.
Everyone can feel the joy of being loved.
We just can not avoid the sadness of losing some loved ones.
He does have the patience to listen to long talks.
It is a virtue not to steal.

还有一些不可数的名词，是所谓的物质名词，像
water
fire
air
metal
tea
coffee
bread
butter

如果这些物质名词泛指一般的东西，前面是不要加冠词的，例如
Drinking water is important.
Don't play with fire.
We need air to breath.
There is metal in this device.
I don't drink tea.
I like coffee.
Father brings bread and butter home every day.

一旦物质名词指特定的东西，前面就要加冠词，例如：
The water in this city is polluted.
There was a fire near our home last night.
The air in this town is getting worse and worse.
Copper is a metal.
The tea from India is very popular in England.

专有名词，一般说来都不要加冠词的：
Mary is from Canada.
John got married last month.
Taiwan is an island.
England is in Europe.


可惜的是，英文中专有名词仍有要加the的，我们将试着将这些例外写成规则，但这种规则一定挂一漏万，读者如要知道何种情况要加冠词，何种情况不加冠词，惟一的办法是多读英文的文章，慢慢地就会了解什么情形该用冠词，什么情形不用冠词。
哪些专门名词前面仍要加冠词the呢？

(1) 河流，海洋，沙漠，海峡，海湾等等专有名词的前面都要加the。
the Hudson River （赫德森河）
the Rhine River （莱茵河）
the Yellow River （黄河）
the River Thames （泰唔士河）
the Amazon River （亚马孙河）
the Pacific Ocean （太平洋）
the Red Sea （红海）
the Mediterranean Sea （地中海）
the Baltic Sea （波罗的海）
the Atlantic Ocean （大西洋）
the Sahara Desert （撒哈拉大沙漠）
the Gobi Desert （戈壁大沙漠）
the Taiwan Straits （台湾海峡）
the English Channel （英吉利海峡）
the Manila Bay （马尼拉海湾）
the Bay of Tokyo （东京湾）
the Persian Gulf （波斯湾）

(2) 国家的名词中如有of时，要加the
the United States of America
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
the Republic of China
(3) 非常言式的名称，也要加the
the World Bank （世界银行）
the United Nations （联合国）
the Red Cross （红十字会）
the Catholic Church （天主教会）

(4) 帝国，朝代，时代等等专有名词的前面，要加the
the British Empire （大英帝国）
the Ｏttoman Empire （奥图门帝国）
the United Kingdom （联合王国）
the Byzantine Era （拜占庭时代）
the Chin Dynasty （秦朝）
the Victoria Era （维多利亚时代）
the Hanover Dynasty （汉诺威王朝）
The Renaissance Era （文艺复兴时代）
the Dark Ages （黑暗时代）

(5) 如果提到〝全体〞，就要加the
the Wangs （王家）
the Kennedys （肯尼迪家族）
请注意，Wang和Kennedy都是姓，如果要指全家人，必须在姓氏的后面加s，前面加the。
the Chinese （中国人）
the Americans （美国人）
the Africans （非洲人）

我们说过，一般的专有名词是不要加冠词的，但是有很多其它的名词前面也不要加冠词，以下是一些规则：

(1) 学科一概不加冠词
I do not like mathematics.
He hates geometry.
She teaches us history.

(2) 三餐一概不加冠词
Did you have lunch.
Missing breakfast is bad for your health.
We have had dinner already.
千万记住，如果我们的名词指定某一个特定的时候，就仍要加冠词，以下是一些例子：
I had a happy Christmas lunch with my family.
The dinner you treated me last night was really good.
Did you have a big breakfast?

(3) 假如我们说〝上学〞，〝去教堂〞等等，都不要加冠词，例如
I went to church yesterday.
He goes to church every Sunday.
She is going to college this summer.
Did you go to school last week?
但是如果我们说的是指定的教堂，学校等等，仍要加冠词，例如：
I went to the church at the corner of Park Street yesterday.
The church which I went to when I was young is still there.
I did not go to the college which my father went to.

(4) 语言不要加冠词
English is easy to learn.
There are also grammatical rules in Chinese.
Can you speech Japanese?
但是，我们必须注意语言有另一种表示的方法，例如：
The English language is easy to learn.
There are grammatical rules in the Chinese language.

(5) 运动一概前面不加冠词
Do you play tennis?
I can not play basketball.
I really love soccer.

(6) 动名词前面不加冠词，例如
Swimming is good for you.
I like playing tennis.
Do you enjoy playing piano?


第十三章 形容词的比较级

如果我们要翻译〝他比较老〞，我们不能说＊ He is more old.
而一定要说 He is older.
为什么呢？这是因为英文里面的形容词有所谓的比较级规则。

13-1 最基本的规则
首先，我们要说明英文形容词有三个等级：原级、比较级和最高级，最基本的规则是根据音节的多少来分的。一般来说，单音节的形容词在字后面加er，就变成了比较级，加est就变成了最高级，而双音节，或双音节以上的形容词，比较级是在字前面加more，最高级则是在字前面加most，举例来说，old, smart, strong, weak, high, low等等都是单音节的形容词，他们的变化如下：

原级 比较级 最高级
old older oldest
smart smarter smartest
strong stronger strongest
weak weaker weakest
high higher highest
low lower lowest

以上的形容词，都是单音节的，以下的例子都有关双音节的形容词：
原级 比较级 最高级
difficult more difficult most difficult
delicious more delicious most delicious
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
correct more correct most correct
stupid more stupid most stupid
significant more significant most significant
有一个规则必须注意，我们不能将more和er混在一齐用：


13-2 特殊的比较级规则
在上一节，我们说明了最基本的规则，那就是单音节形容词加er或est，双音节的形容词前面加more或most。但以下就是这些基本规则的例外。
(1) 单音节形容词的字是e，就直接加r或st：
原级 比较级 最高级
large larger largest
late later latest
nice nicer nicest
wise wiser wisest
(2) 形容词的字尾是y，而前一个子母是一个子音，则除掉y，加上ier，或iest：
原级 比较级 最高级
lucky luckier luckiest
happy happier happiest
pretty prettier prettiest
dry drier driest
easy easier easiest
(3) 单音节形容词的字尾是子音，前一音是一个元音，则字尾必须重复一次，再加er或est：
原级 比较级 最高级
fat fatter fattest
hot hotter hottest
wet wetter wettest
big bigger biggest
(4) 完全不规则的变化：
英文中，有几个特殊的字，他们的比较级完全没有规则，以下是一些例子，读者必须记住：
原级 比较级 最高级
good
well better best
bad worse worst
many
much more most

13-3 比较形的用法
大多数比较级句子里会有than，以下是一些例子：
I am older than he.
His English is better than mine.
San Francisco is more beautiful than New York.
His car is cheaper than your car.
He is the most diligent student in his class.
I like apples more than oranges.
He has more money than his brother.
He is stronger than his brother.

必须注意的是以下的句子是错的：
＊ I am older than him.
＊ She is smarter than me.
为什么错了呢？因为原来句子应该是：
I am older than he (is).
She is more smart than I (am).
习惯上的is和am都省略掉的，由以上的解释可以看出，than后面的句词应该是主词，而非受词。
以下的错误，也请特别注意：
＊ My head is larger than your.
正确的句子是：
My head is larger than your head. 或者 My head is larger than yours.


请看以下几个错误的句子：
＊ The temperature of this city is higher than San Francisco.

正确的句子应该是：

The temperature of this city is higher than the temperature of San Francisco.
或者 The Temperature of this city is higher than that of San Francisco.

请注意以下的例子，句子中没有than，但仍有比较级：
Among all the teachers who have taught me, he is the best.
This is the best movie I have ever seen.
This food is the worst one which I have ever eaten.
John is the stronger one.
Do we have a better choice?
Mary is the more diligent one.
He is the older of the two.
He is one of the best movie actors.
This area is one of the hottest areas in the world.
He is one of the fastest swimmers of America.
This is a book which I like most.


第十四章 总复习的例子

在这一章，我们将给很多简短的文章，每一段文章的后面，我们都会有详细的解释，相信这些解释将有助于读者对于文法的了解。
（１）
Dear Mother:
I arrived at the Taipei Train Station around one o'clock in the afternoon yesterday. My friend, Mr. Chen, greeted me in the station. We took a taxi to go directly to the university and checked into the dormitory. The dormitory is a very old one. I will live with three other boys and I met two of them already. Both of them are from Taichung and they are both quite friendly.
We went to the dormitory cafeteria for dinner. The food is not that good. Dear Mother, I miss you and especially the food you cooked for me.
Your son
这封信很简单，所叙述的事情不是用简单的现在式，就是简单的过去式，当然也有一次用了将来时。
绝大多数的句子都用了简单的过去式，因为这些句子都是叙述过去所发生的事，用现在式的有以下几句：
The dormitory is a very old one.
Both of them are from Taichung.
The food is not that good.
I miss you and the food you cooked for me.
为什么这几句话要用现在式呢？道理很简单，这几句话描写的是一些状态，而并非过去发生的事。
〝The dormitory is a very old one.〞
〝Both of them are from Taichung.〞
〝The food is not that good.〞
〝I miss you and the food you cooked for me.〞
等四个句子都是目前存在的事实，所以要用现在式。
现在我们不妨看一下冠词的情形，我们可以看到很多地方都用了the，如：
the Taipei Train Station
the afternoon
the station
the university
the dormitory cafetervia
the dormitory
the food
the food you cooked for me
各位读者一定可以注意到在the后面的名词都有所指，举例来说，the university指那所作者要去念的大学，他的妈妈知道他所说的是那一所大学。The dormitory指那间他已搬进去住的宿舍。凡是有所指的名词前面，原则上都应该加the。
哪里用了〝a〞呢？注意，我们用了两次
a taxi
a very old one
读者应该不难看出为什么这里我们不能用the，而一定要用a。


（２）
Mary: "Hello, this is Mary. Who is calling?"
John: "Hi, this is John. How are you?"
Mary: "I am doing fine. In fact, I am studying for the final examination now."
John: "Oh, I am sorry. When will the exam be over?"
Mary: "This Friday."
John: "Then, can we have dinner Friday evening?"
Mary: "OK, where are we going to eat?"
John: "How about the Chinese restaurant called Four Seasons?"
Mary: "That is all right with me. When do we meet?"
John: "How about six o'clock?"
Mary: "That's it. See you Friday evening at 6 o'clock at the Four Seasons."
这一篇短文主要的目的在于介绍所谓现在进行式。
Who is calling.
I am doing fine.
I am studying for the final examination now.
都是标准的现在进行式，事实上，也必须用现在进行式。
（３）
I have been interested in music ever since I was a small child. When I was seven years old, my mother gave me a violin as a birthday present. I have been taking violin lessons ever since.
I am so much interested in music that I finally decided to go to music school. This was a hard decision for me. I consulted with my parents. Both of them encouraged me to go ahead.
Yesterday, I was accepted by one of the best music schools in Taiwan. I am really happy about this.
这一段话中，我们开始用现在完成式，比方说第一句话就是
I have been interested in music ever since I was a small child.
为什么要用现在完成式呢？道理很简单，这句话里面有有〝ever since〞这个词，凡是有了这个词句，我们就一定要用现在完成式了。
另外一句用了现在完成进行式的句子是：
I have been taking violin lessons ever since.
读者不妨去看看第四章，就知道为什么这里要用现在完成进行式了。凡是〝自从〞某某日开始，而就一直在做的事情，就应该用现在完成式，或者现在完成进行式。
这一段文章里面，我们还用了被动语气。
I was accepted by one of the best music schools in Taiwan.
各位读者不妨注意，这被动语气的用法是很正当而且适宜的，如用主动这句话变成了
One of the best music schools accepted me.
这样反而并不太能表达原意。
（４）
Before I got into college, I had been to the United States and lived there for one year. This is why I could speak English better than average students.
As I studied as a college student, Hitler was secretly preparing for the Second World War. The war erupted finally when I was a senior. I was forced to quit school and was drafted into the army. I luckily survived the war and came back to resume my studying after the war was over. Since I had gone to the war, I was more mature than most of the other students.
Even now, I can still remember my days as a college student as well as a soldier.
这篇文章介绍了如何使用过去完成式，第一句话就用了过去完成式，因为有两件事，一件是〝进大学〞，另一件是〝去过美国〞，由于在进大学以前去美国，所以〝去美国〞就用了过去完成式。
请注意第二段的第一句：
As I studied as a college student, Hitler was secretly preparing for the Second World War.
这一次，我们用了过去进行式，因为有两件事，〝在学校念书〞是一件事，〝希特勒在准备发动第二次世界大战〞是另一件事，其中有一件可以用过去完成式。
同理，在第二段话的最后一句话中，〝曾经去打过仗〞用了过去完成式。
这段文章中，有一句话用了被动语气，读者不妨看这句话〝I was forced to quit school.〞，其实我们在这种情形之下，我们必须用被动语气，当然也可以用主动语气，不过那并不太自然。
也请读者注意这段文章的最后一句话仍一定要用现在式。
（５）
I have been interested in reading novels for a long time. Among all of the novels that I have read, I like detective novels the most. Among all detective novels, I especially like those written by Agatha Christe.
Last year, I started reading another kind of novels, namely science fictions. I found out that some science fiction writers are quite philosophical. Unfortunately, there are not too many of them.
I always have a dream that one day I will be good in writing novels. Do you think that my dreams may come true?
这段文章中，我们介绍了动名词的用法，第一句话的reading就是动名词，除此以外，我们还有两处用了动名词：started reading和good in writing。
读者也应该了解为什么第一句话要用现在完成进行式，在第二句话里面，当我们形容novels，我们也用了现在完成式。
请读者注意第一段的最后一句话，those written by Agatha Christe。在这里，written是一个过去分词用作了形容词，形容novels，我们也可以说those which were written by Agatha Christe.
顺便讲一下，Agatha Christe是一位非常著名的侦探小说作者。
也请大家注意，我们只能说interested in reading，而不能说interesting in reading。
（６）
Tomorrow, there will be a dancing party in our university. Since we are freshmen and most of us have never been to a large dancing party, we are naturally very much excited. I must say that I am not that excited. Although dancing is interesting, I often think that the music is too loud. Besides, as a bystander, I often find the way that the young people dance these days is so funny. When they dance, they often remind me of monkeys.
Well, I must admit that playing basketball is more interesting to me. But, unfortunately, I cannot play basketball tomorrow because the courts will be used for the dancing party.
这一段话主要的目的是介绍现分词和过去分词用成形容词的做法。第一个现在分词是dancing，dancing 在这里形容party。
我们在这里看到有些时候，我们应该用现在分词，有时要用过去分词。请看以下的句子：
We are naturally very much excited.
在这里，我们一定要用excited，绝对不能用
＊We are naturally very exciting.
下一句
Although dancing is interesting,
在这里，我们必须用interesting，而不能用interested。也就是说，我们不能说
＊Although dancing is interested.
（７）
We probably all believe that we should love others and forgive those who do bad things to us. Unfortunately it is often hard for us to practice what we believe in. For example, if someone really hurts us badly, we just do not know what we should do. Should we take some kind of action to hurt the person who hurt us, or should we forgive him?
The truth is that we may still seek justice. It is right if we want a criminal to go to jail for his crime. Yet, we should never have hatred in our hearts.
这篇文章的目的在介绍〝子句〞的用法，请注意这篇文章内的很多子句，举例来说
that we should love others and forgive those who do bad things.
就是一个子句，这个子句是believe的受词，有趣的是，这个子句内部又有一个子句，那就是
who do bad things to do.
这个子句是形容those的。
以下是这一段文章的全部子句：
that we should love others and forgive those
who do bad things to us
what we believe in
what we should do
that we may still seek justice